Hendra Hidayat, Hafizul Fahri Hanafi, Muhammad Anwar, Hadi Kurnia Saputra, Anggarda Paramita Muji, Randi Proska Sandra
Previous research has predominantly examined the effectiveness of learning applications through experimental designs, yet few have explored how these technologies shape students’ internal cognitive and psychological skills. This study makes a novel contribution by embedding a smart learning application within an integrated psychological-cognitive framework, i.e., prior knowledge, metacognition, cognitive engagement, and self-regulated learning, to explain the development of critical thinking disposition. The learning process was designed using the case method, involving 369 undergraduates in the Faculty of Engineering at Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia. Data were collected via an online survey and analyzed through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with SmartPLS 3 and Fuzzy C-Means Clustering (FCM) with JASP. Results of the direct effect analysis show that prior knowledge and metacognitive do not directly influence critical thinking, while cognitive engagement and self-regulated learning exert significant positive effects. Indirect effect analysis further indicates that prior knowledge and metacognitive significantly affect critical thinking when mediated by cognitive engagement and self-regulated learning. Clustering analysis reveals that most respondents engage with the application at a moderate level. Therefore, targeted interventions such as scaffolding strategies to guide learning processes, adaptive feedback to foster metacognitive monitoring, and gamification elements to sustain motivation are essential for enhancing engagement, reducing passive use, and maximizing the educational impact of smart learning technologies. © 2026 by the authors.
Department of Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, Indonesia; Department of Computer Science and Digital Technology, Faculty of Computing and Meta-technology, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia; Department of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, Indonesia
