Rahoul Ganesh, Burhan Ul Islam Khan, Abdul Raouf Khan, Amirrudin Bin Kamsin
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) stands as a cornerstone in contemporary data protection, securing everything from enterprise storage and web traffic to Internet of Things (IoT) devices and high-performance cloud infrastructures. This paper offers a panoramic survey of AES, from its historical foundations and architecture through an exploration of its Substitution-Permutation Network (SPN) design, mathematical foundations in Galois Field arithmetic, and evolution since NIST’s public competition that selected Rijndael. Emphasis is placed on the algorithm’s resistance to classical cryptanalysis such as differential and linear attacks while recognizing that side-channel threats, including power analysis and timing leakage, can undermine even robust ciphers if implementations are flawed. Practical implementations and real-world applications are examined across software libraries, specialized hardware accelerators like Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), and lightweight adaptations for constrained environments, illustrating how factors such as performance, cost, and energy consumption must be balanced against potential vulnerabilities. Subsequently, we compare AES with alternative block and stream ciphers (e.g., 3DES, ChaCha20), underscoring AES’s continuing dominance in both regulated industries and modern cryptographic protocols. Key management emerges as a linchpin, where flawed lifecycle practices or insecure key storage can jeopardize AES’s theoretical security. Finally, the paper addresses looming challenges, chief among them the advent of quantum computing, which motivates hybrid cryptographic schemes that combine AES with post-quantum algorithms. By highlighting cutting-edge research on side-channel mitigations, post-quantum integration, and advanced masking techniques, this survey reaffirms AES’s pre-eminence while mapping out the critical avenues of innovation needed to preserve its resilience in an evolving threat landscape. © The Author(s) 2025.
Department of Computer System and Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia; Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, 25132, Indonesia; Department of Computer Sciences, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, 31982, Saudi Arabia
Research at a Glance
Register to unlock
Topics & SDG Alignment
Register to unlock
Collaboration
Register to unlock
Author Profile (Selected)
Register to unlock
References Overview
Register to unlock
Journal & Source
Register to unlock
Metadata & Integrity
Register to unlock