Prakasini Satapathy, Beema T. Yoosuf, Abhay M. Gaidhane, Nasir Vadia, Soumya V. Menon, Kattela Chennakesavulu, Rajashree Panigrahi, Manpreet Kaur, Ganesh Bushi, K.T. Muhammed Favas, Muhammed Shabil, Mayank Goyal, Harish Kumar, Anju Rani, Sabah Ansar, Sanjit Sah, Diptismita Jena, Mahalaqua Nazli Khatib, Ahmad Neyazi, Khang Wen Goh
The resurgence of monkeypox (mpox), driven by Clade IIb of the monkeypox virus (MPXV), has intensified global concerns about its transmission, treatment, and prevention. Mpox, a zoonotic orthopoxvirus and is primarily transmitted through close contact with infected individuals, contaminated surfaces, or respiratory droplets. Historically, the virus has been divided into two clades: Clade I, endemic to Central Africa and characterized by higher fatality rates, and Clade II, linked to milder disease in West Africa. The unprecedented global spread of Clade IIb Mpox in 2022, affecting over 99,000 individuals across 118 countries, underscored the potential for widespread transmission beyond endemic regions. This review provides a detailed examination of the transmission dynamics of mpox, current treatments, innovations, and global health challenges. Current treatment strategies primarily involve supportive care, with advanced therapeutics such as tecovirimat, cidofovir, and brincidofovir reserved for severe cases. While these antivirals show promise, their clinical efficacy and safety remain inadequately substantiated, creating a pressing need for rigorous trials. Preventive measures, including vaccination and postexposure prophylaxis, remain pivotal in mitigating disease spread, yet face barriers such as limited supply, accessibility, and vaccine hesitancy. Emerging therapeutic innovations, such as monoclonal antibodies, gene-editing technologies, and RNA-based therapies, offer hope for addressing these gaps. These novel approaches aim to enhance treatment specificity, minimize off-target effects, and reduce the risk of resistance. However, their successful integration into clinical practice demands robust validation through preclinical and clinical research. In addressing the challenges ahead, this review underscores the critical importance of global collaboration to strengthen epidemiological surveillance, accelerate drug development, and optimize prevention strategies. The emergence of drug-resistant strains, the persistence of mpox in vulnerable populations, and the potential for future outbreaks necessitate sustained investment in research and public health infrastructure. By integrating innovative therapeutic approaches, effective preventive measures, and comprehensive outbreak management strategies, the global health community can better address the ongoing threat of mpox and prepare for future public health challenges. © The Author(s), 2025. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
University Center for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Punjab, Mohali, India; Faculty of Data Science and Information Technology, INTI International University, Nilai, Malaysia; Center for Global Health Research, Saveetha Medical College and Hospital, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India; Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, and Global Health Academy, School of Epidemiology and Public Health, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education, Wardha, India; Marwadi University Research Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Marwadi University, Gujarat, Rajkot, India; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, School of Sciences, JAIN (Deemed to be University), Karnataka, Bangalore, India; Department of Chemistry, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu, Chennai, India; Department of Microbiology, IMS and SUM Hospital, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Odisha, Bhubaneswar, India; Department of Pharmacy, Chandigarh Pharmacy College, Chandigarh Group of Colleges-Jhanjeri, Punjab, Mohali, India; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India; University of Cyberjaya, Persiaran Bestari Selangor Darul Ehsan, Cyberjaya, Malaysia; Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology Pharmacy Institute, India; Department of Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy, MS Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences, Bangalore, India; IES Institute of Pharmacy, IES University, Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal, India; New Delhi Institute of Management, Tughlakabad Institutional Area, New Delhi, India; Department of Microbiology, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun, India; Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Paediatrics, Dr. D. Y. Patil Medical College Hospital and Research Centre, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth (Deemed-to-be-University), Pune, Maharashtra, Pimpri, India; Department of Public Health Dentistry, Dr. D. Y. Patil Medical College Hospital and Research Centre, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth (Deemed-to-be-University), Pune, Maharashtra, Pimpri, India; Department of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Division of Evidence Synthesis, Global Consortium of Public Health and Research, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education, Wardha, India; Afghanistan Center for Epidemiological Studies, Shahzadegan 7 Street, Herat, 3001, Afghanistan; Scientific Research Committee, Afghanistan Medical Students Association, Herat, Afghanistan; Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, Indonesia
