Khang Wen Goh, Burhan Ul Islam Khan, Abdul Raouf Khan, Dwi Sudarno Putra, Fathimathul Rajeena P. P, Md. Alamin Bhuyian
Blockchain systems built on classical cryptography face immediate risks from large-scale quantum computers, while purely quantum-based blockchains often rely on a single Private Key Generator (PKG) and incur heavy resource overheads. To overcome these issues, this paper proposes a hybrid quantum and post-quantum blockchain approach that removes single points of trust by using Distributed Key Generation and a dual-layer signature mechanism. This method integrates quantum digital signatures, rooted in the Fully Flipped Permutation problem, with classical post-quantum (lattice-based) cryptography, enabling users to switch between quantum and classical signatures according to security requirements and channel conditions. Delegated Proof-of-Stake with node behavior and Borda count has been incorporated to manage consensus, ensuring that witness nodes are regularly re-elected and malicious actors are penalized by distributing secret shares among multiple rotating witnesses. We eliminate the central vulnerability of a sole PKG while maintaining rigorous resistance to collusions. Our analytical model indicates that a fraction of transactions can use quantum signatures without system-wide bottlenecks, while the remaining transactions follow classical PQC paths with throughput approaching classical baselines under our modeling assumptions. Consequently, this hybrid method offers higher scalability, robust collusion resistance, and long-term security even under quantum-capable adversaries. This paper presents extensive theoretical analyses, probability models, and algorithmic complexities, demonstrating that our design provides resilient infrastructure that meets the key performance and security requirements of next-generation blockchain systems. © The Author(s) 2026.
Faculty of Data Science and Information Technology, INTI International University, Nilai, 71800, Malaysia; Department of Computer System and Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia; Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, 25132, Indonesia; Department of Computer Sciences, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, Hofuf, 31982, Saudi Arabia; Department of Computer Engineering, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, Hofuf, 31982, Saudi Arabia
