Mohamad Nizam Nazarudin, Mohd Syazwan Zainal, Wan Ahmad Munsif Wan Pa, Ardo Okilanda
Targeted interventions in special education are designed to address diverse learning, behavioral, and developmental needs of children with disabilities. However, evidence regarding their comparative effectiveness, cost-efficiency, and long-term sustainability remains fragmented and insufficiently synthesized. This systematic literature review aims to evaluate the comparative effectiveness and long-term outcomes of targeted interventions in special education, with particular emphasis on their efficacy, economic viability, and sustainability across diverse educational contexts. The review was conducted following the PRISMA framework. A comprehensive search was performed across major databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and SpringerLink, for studies published between 2016 and 2023. Eligibility criteria included empirical studies focusing on K–12 special education interventions with reported outcomes on effectiveness or long-term impact. A total of 46 studies met the inclusion criteria after systematic screening and quality appraisal. The findings indicate substantial variability in intervention effectiveness. School-based and parent-mediated interventions demonstrate strong short-term improvements in academic, social, and behavioral outcomes, while behavioral and ecological approaches exhibit greater long-term sustainability. In contrast, cognitive-focused interventions often show significant initial gains but are prone to fadeout effects over time. Cost-effectiveness analyses reveal trade-offs between resource intensity and scalability, with digital and parent-led interventions offering more feasible alternatives in resource-constrained settings. However, longitudinal evidence remains limited, restricting definitive conclusions regarding sustained impact. Targeted interventions in special education are effective but context-dependent, with their long-term success influenced by intervention design, duration, and systemic support. The review highlights the need for standardized evaluation frameworks, longitudinal research, and context-sensitive implementation strategies. These findings provide critical insights for educators, policymakers, and researchers aiming to optimize sustainable and evidence-based practices in special education. © 2026 Authors. Open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia; Fakultas Ilmu Keolahragaan, Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia
